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Justice Cushing

Justice Cushing

William Cushing (March 1, 1732–September 13, 1810) was an early associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, from its inception to his death.

Youth and early career

Born in Scituate, Massachusetts, Cushing became a member of the bar in Boston in 1751. Although his family had a history of attorneyship, he seemed to have had a hard time at the beginning of his career. During that time, as well, his father, John Cushing, served on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court for about 24 years. When his father resigned in 1771, Cushing took his position on the Court. However, when the American Revolution started, he had to choose between the rebels and Great Britain; unlike the rest of the court, he chose the U.S.

His work with state and federal constitutions

In 1783, Cushing presided over a criminal action that virtually abolished slavery in Massachusetts, citing the 1780 Constitution of Massachusetts's statement that "all men are born free and equal". During Shays' Rebellion, he made sure that court sessions continued, even at the aggressive protests of the armed rebels. He later presided over the trial against the rebels. A year later, in 1788, he was vice president of the Constitutional Convention, which narrowly ratified the Constitution.

Washington's first appointee

When George Washington became President of the United States, his first appointee to the Supreme Court was Cushing. Although he served on the Court for 21 years, he wrote only 19 decisions, mainly due to frequent travels and failing health. He generally held a nationalist or Federalist view, often disagreeing with Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans. His two most important decisions were probably Chisholm v. Georgia and Ware v. Hylton, which regarded intra-state suits and the supremacy of treaties. Cushing was probably the last American jurist to wear a wig. He died in 1810.

The third Chief Justice?

When John Jay resigned from the Court in 1795, Washington had to appoint a new Chief Justice. Although his first choice was John Rutledge, the Senate refused to confirm him. Washington then nominated Cushing on January 26, 1796; his nomination was confirmed unanimously by the Senate the following day, and Washington then signed his commission. Remarkably, although Cushing likely was present in Philadelphia (the temporary capital) during these events, he was unaware of the nomination until Washington introduced him as "Chief Justice" at a dinner party. Cushing received the commission and, on February 3 and 4, apparently sat as Chief Justice during sessions of the Court. The rough minutes of the Court sessions of those dates list him as Chief Justice, although this entry was later crossed out. On February 5, Cushing returned the commission to Washington with a letter referring to his "infirm & declining state of health." (Washington then appointed Oliver Ellsworth as Chief Justice, transmitting the nomination to the Senate in a message saying that the nominee would replace "William Cushing, resigned.") Subsequent histories of the Court have not counted Cushing as a Chief Justice, but instead report that he declined the appointment.

References


- Tony Mauro: "The Chief Justice Who Wasn't There", Legal Times (September 19, 2005) [http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1127207113073]

External links


- [http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/justices/cushing.htm William Cushing Biography]
- [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/3/biography Another Biography] Cushing, William Cushing, William Cushing, William Cushing, William

March 1

March 1 is the 60th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (61st in leap years). There are 305 days remaining.

Events


- 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army, enters in Athens, removing the tyrant Aristion who was supported by troops of Mithridates VI of Pontus.
- 1562 - Over 1,000 Huguenots are massacred by Catholics in Wassy, France marking the start of the French Wars of Religion.
- 1565 - The city of Rio de Janeiro is founded.
- 1628 - Writs are issued in February by Charles I of England that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date.
- 1633 - Samuel de Champlain reclaims his role as commander of New France on behalf of Cardinal Richelieu.
- 1642 - Georgeana, Massachusetts (now known as York, Maine) becomes the first incorporated city in America.
- 1692 - The Salem witch trials begin in Salem Village, Massachusetts.
- 1700 - Sweden introduces its own Swedish calendar, in an attempt to reform into the Gregorian calendar, then reverts to the Julian calendar on this date in 1712, and then introduces the Gregorian Calendar on this date in 1753.
- 1781 - The Continental Congress adopts the Articles of Confederation.
- 1790 - The first United States census is authorized.
- 1803 - Ohio is admitted as the 17th U.S. state.
- 1805 - Justice Samuel Chase is acquitted at the end of his impeachment trial by the U.S. Senate.
- 1811 - Leaders of the Mameluke dynasty are killed by Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.
- 1815 - Napoleon returns to France from his banishment on Elba.
- 1836 - A Convention of delegates from 57 Texas communities convenes in Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas, to deliberate independence from Mexico.
- 1840 - Adolphe Thiers becomes prime minister of France.
- 1845 - President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas.
- 1852 - Archibald William Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
- 1854 - German pyschologist Friedrich Eduard Beneke disappears; two years later his remains are found in the canal near Charlottenburg.
- 1867 - Nebraska becomes the 37th U.S. state; Lancaster, Nebraska is renamed Lincoln and becomes the state capital.
- 1872 - Yellowstone National Park is established as the world's first national park.
- 1873 - E. Remington and Sons in Ilion, New York, start production of the first practical typewriter.
- 1873 - Henry Comstock discovers the Comstock Lode in Virgina City, Nevada.
- 1886 - Anglo-Chinese School,Singapore was founded by Bishop William Oldham.
- 1896 - Battle of Adowa, an Ethiopian army defeats an outnumbered Italian force, ending the First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1896 - Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity.
- 1912 - Albert Berry makes the first parachute jump from a moving airplane.
- 1914 - The Republic of China joins the Universal Postal Union.
- 1917 - U.S. government releases the plaintext of the Zimmermann Telegram to the public.
- 1918 - German submarine Unterseeboot 19 (U-19) sinks HMS Calgarian off Rathlin Island.
- 1919 - March 1st Movement begins in Korea.
- 1932 - The son of Charles Lindbergh, Charles Augustus Lindbergh III, is kidnapped.
- 1936 - Hoover Dam is completed.
- 1941 - World War II: Bulgaria signs the Tripartite Pact thus joining the Axis powers.
- 1941 - W47NV (now known as WSM-FM) begins operations in Nashville, Tennessee becoming the first FM radio station in the U.S..
- 1946 - The Bank of England is nationalised.
- 1947 - The International Monetary Fund begins financial operations.
- 1949 - Indonesia seizes Yogyakarta from the Dutch.
- 1950 - Cold War: Klaus Fuchs is convicted of spying for the Soviet Union by giving them top secret atomic bomb data.
- 1953 - Joseph Stalin collapses, having suffered a stroke. He dies four days later.
- 1954 - Nuclear testing: The Castle Bravo, a 15-megaton hydrogen bomb, is detonated on Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean, resulting in the worst radioactive contamination ever caused by the United States.
- 1954 - Puerto Rican nationalists attack the United States Capitol building, injuring five Representatives. (See U.S. Capitol shooting incident (1954).)
- 1955 - Allen Fieldhouse at the University of Kansas hosts its first college basketball game.
- 1956 - The International Air Transport Association finalizes a draft of the Radiotelephony spelling alphabet for the International Civil Aviation Organization.
- 1958 - Samuel Alphonsus Stritch, is appointed Pro-Perfect of the Propagation of Faith and thus becomes the first American member of the Roman Curia.
- 1961 - President of the United States John F. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps.
- 1961 - Uganda becomes self-governing as its first elections held.
- 1962 - American Airlines Flight 1 crashes on take off in New York.
- 1966 - Venera 3 Soviet space probe crashes on Venus becoming the first spacecraft to land on another planet's surface.
- 1966 - The Ba'ath Party takes power in Syria.
- 1969 - During a performance at Miami's Dinner Key Auditorium, Jim Morrison of the Doors is arrested for exposing himself during the show.
- 1969 - John Kerry officially leaves active duty in Vietnam.
- 1971 - A bomb explodes in a men's room in the White House: the Weather Underground claims responsibility.
- 1971 - Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending national assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan.
- 1972 - The Thai province of Yasothon is created after being split off from the Ubon Ratchathani province.
- 1974 - Watergate scandal: Seven are indicted for their role in the Watergate break-in and charged with conspiracy to obstruct justice.
- 1975 - Colour television transmissions begin in Australia.
- 1978 - Charlie Chaplin's coffin is stolen from a Swiss cemetery.
- 1980 - Voyager 1 probe confirms that Janus (moon of Saturn) exists.
- 1983 - Swatch introduces their first timepieces.
- 1989 - The United States becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1990 - Steve Jackson Games is raided by the United States Secret Service, prompting the later formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.
- 1994 - Seattle grunge band Nirvana play their last show in Munich, Germany.
- 1995 - Polish Prime Minister Waldemar Pawlak resigns from parliament and is replaced by ex-communist Józef Oleksy.
- 2000 - The Constitution of Finland is rewritten.
- 2000 - Hans Blix assumes the position of Executive Chairman of UNMOVIC.
- 2002 - U.S. invasion of Afghanistan: Operation Anaconda begins in eastern Afghanistan.
- 2002 - The Envisat environmental satellite successfully reaches an orbit 800 kilometers (500 miles) above the Earth on its 11th launch, carrying the heaviest payload to date at 8500 kilograms (9.5 tons).
- 2002 - The Peseta is discontinued as official currency of Spain and is replaced with the euro (€).
- 2003 - Management of the United States Customs Service and the United States Secret Service move to the United States Department of Homeland Security.
- 2004 - Terry Nichols is convicted of state murder charges and being an accomplice to Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh.
- 2004 - The TV game show The Price is Right airs its 6,000 episode.
- 2004 - Punycode adopted by the national registrars of Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
- 2004 - Mohammed Bahr al-Uloum becomes President of Iraq.

Births


- 1445 - Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter (d. 1510)
- 1456 - King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary (d. 1516)
- 1474 - Angela Merici, Italian nun (d. 1540)
- 1547 - Rudolph Goclenius, German philosopher (d. 1628)
- 1597 - Jean-Charles de la Faille, Belgian mathematician (d. 1652)
- 1610 - John Pell, English mathematician (d. 1685)
- 1657 - Samuel Werenfels, Swiss theologian (d. 1740)
- 1683 - Caroline of Ansbach, queen of George II of Great Britain (d. 1737)
- 1760 - François Nicolas Leonard Buzot, French revolutionary (suicide) (d. 1794)
- 1769 - François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, French general (d. 1796)
- 1807 - Wilford Woodruff, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1898)
- 1810 - Frédéric Chopin, Polish-French composer and pianist (d. 1849)
- 1812 - Augustus Pugin, English-born architect (d. 1852)
- 1821 - Joseph Hubert Reinkens, German Old Catholic bishop (d. 1896)
- 1837 - William Dean Howells, American writer, historian, editor, and politician (d. 1920)
- 1852 - Théophile Delcassé, French statesman (d. 1923)
- 1858 - Georg Simmel, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1918)
- 1865 - Abe Iso, Japanese politician (d. 1949)
- 1871 - Ben Harney, American composer and ragtime pianist (d. 1938)
- 1876 - Henri de Baillet-Latour, Belgian International Olympic Committee president (d. 1942)
- 1880 - Giles Lytton Strachey British writer (d. 1932)
- 1886 - Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian painter, graphic artist, and poet (d. 1980)
- 1888 - Ewart Astill, English cricketer (d. 1948)
- 1889 - Watsuji Tetsuro, Japanese ethicist and philosopher (d. 1960)
- 1892 - Ryunosuke Akutagawa, Japanese writer (d. 1927)
- 1893 - Mercedes de Acosta, American poet, playwright, costume designer, and socialite (d. 1968)
- 1896 - Dimitri Mitropoulos, Greek conductor, pianist, and composer (d. 1960)
- 1901 - Pietro Spiggia, Italian poet
- 1904 - Glenn Miller, American bandleader (d. 1944)
- 1910 - Archer John Porter Martin, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- 1910 - David Niven, English actor (d. 1983)
- 1914 - Ralph Ellison, American writer (d. 1994)
- 1917 - Robert Lowell, American poet (d. 1977)
- 1918 - Roger Delgado, British actor (d. 1973)
- 1918 - João Goulart, President of Brazil (d. 1976)
- 1920 - Howard Nemerov, American poet (d. 1991)
- 1921 - Terence Cardinal Cooke, American Catholic archbishop (d. 1983)
- 1921 - Richard Wilbur, American poet
- 1922 - William Gaines, American publisher (d. 1992)
- 1922 - Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1995)
- 1923 - Kuczka Péter, Hungarian writer, poet, and editor (d. 1999)
- 1924 - Deke Slayton, astronaut (d. 1993)
- 1926 - Robert Clary, French actor
- 1926 - Alvin "Pete" Rozelle, commissioner of American football (d. 1996)
- 1927 - Harry Belafonte, American musician and actor
- 1928 - Dr. Seymour Papert, South African mathematician and artificial intelligence researcher
- 1928 - Jacques Rivette, French film director
- 1929 - Georgi Markov, Bulgarian dissident, (d. 1978)
- 1935 - Robert Conrad, American actor
- 1936 - Mikhail Kuzmin, Russian writer (b. 1871)
- 1937 - Jed Allan, American actor
- 1942 - Richard Bowman Myers, U.S. general and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
- 1943 - Gil Amelio, American businessman and venture capitalist
- 1944 - John Breaux, U,S. Senator from Louisiana
- 1944 - Mike D'Abo, British singer (Mannfred Mann)
- 1944 - Roger Daltrey, English musician (The Who)
- 1945 - Dirk Benedict, American film and television actor
- 1946 - Lana Wood, American actress
- 1947 - Alan Thicke, Canadian actor and songwriter
- 1948 - Burning Spear, Jamaican singer and musician
- 1952 - Steven Barnes, American writer
- 1953 - Richard Bruton, Irish politician and economist
- 1954 - Catherine Bach, American actress
- 1954 - Ron Howard, American actor, director, and producer
- 1956 - Timothy Daly, American actor
- 1958 - Bertrand Piccard, Swiss balloonist and psychiatrist
- 1963 - Dan Michaels, musician and record producer
- 1963 - Thomas Anders, German singer (Modern talking)
- 1965 - Stewart Elliott, Canadian jockey
- 1967 - Aron Winter, Dutch soccer player
- 1969 - Javier Bardem, Spanish actor
- 1969 - Dafydd Ieuan, Welsh drummer (Super Furry Animals)
- 1970 - Jason Brock, American writer
- 1971 - Tyler Hamilton, American cyclist
- 1973 - Chris Webber, American basketball player
- 1973 - Ryan Peake, Canadian guitarist (Nickelback)
- 1974 - Mark-Paul Gosselaar, American actor
- 1977 - Rens Blom, Dutch athlete
- 1980 - Djimi Traore, Malian footballer
- 1981 - Adam LaVorgna, American actor

Deaths


- 1131 - King Stephen II of Hungary (b. 1101)
- 1233 - Count Thomas I of Savoy (b. 1178)
- 1244 - Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, son of Llywelyn the Great (b. 1200)
- 1383 - Amadeus VI of Savoy (b. 1334)
- 1510 - Francisco de Almeida, Portuguese soldier and explorer
- 1536 - Bernardo Accolti, Italian poet (b. 1465)
- 1546 - George Wishart, Scottish religious reformer (martyred) (b 1513)
- 1620 - Thomas Campion, English poet and composer (b. 1567)
- 1633 - George Herbert, English poet and orator (b. 1593)
- 1643 - Girolamo Frescobaldi, Italian composer (b. 1583)
- 1661 - Richard Zouch, English jurist (b. 1590)
- 1697 - Francesco Redi, Italian physician (b. 1626)
- 1706 - Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming, German field marshal and Governor of Berlin (b. 1632)
- 1734 - Roger North, English biographer (b. 1653)
- 1757 - Edward Moore, English writer (b. 1712)
- 1768 - Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German philosopher and writer (b. 1694)
- 1773 - Luigi Vanvitelli, Italian architect (b. 1700)
- 1777 - Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Austrian composer (b. 1715)
- 1792 - Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1747)
- 1841 - Claude Victor-Perrin, duc de Belluno, French marshal (b. 1764)
- 1862 - Peter Barlow, English mathematician (b. 1776)
- 1875 - Tristan Corbière, French poet (b. 1845)
- 1879 - Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (b. 1825)
- 1884 - Isaac Todhunter, English mathematician (b. 1820)
- 1898 - George Bruce Malleson, English officer in India, author (b. 1825)
- 1911 - Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- 1912 - George Grossmith, English actor and comic writer (b. 1847)
- 1914 - Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto (b. 1845)
- 1920 - John H. Bankhead, U.S. Senator (b. 1842)
- 1920 - Joseph Trumpeldor, Russian Zionist (b. 1880)
- 1922 - Rafael Moreno Aranzadi, Spanish footballer (b. 1892)
- 1932 - Frank Teschemacher, American jazz clarinettist
- 1938 - Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian writer, war hero, and politician (b. 1863)
- 1940 - Anton Hansen Tammsaare, Estonian author (b. 1878)
- 1943 - Alexandre Yersin, Swiss physician (b. 1863)
- 1952 - Mariano Azuela, Mexican novelist (b. 1873)
- 1966 - Fritz Houtermans, German physicist (b. 1903)
- 1970 - Lucille Hegamin, American singer and entertainer (b. 1894)
- 1974 - Bobby Timmons, American jazz pianist (b. 1935)
- 1979 - Mustafa Barzani, Kurdish politician (b. 1903)
- 1984 - Jackie Coogan, American actor (b. 1914)
- 1988 - Joe Besser, American comedian and actor (b. 1907)
- 1991 - Edwin H. Land, American inventor (b. 1909)
- 1995 - Vladislav Listyev, Russian television journalist (b. 1956)
- 2000 - Dennis Danell, American guitarist (Social Distortion) (b. 1961)
- 2003 - Fidel Sánchez Hernández, President of El Salvador (b. 1917)

Holidays and observances


- Korea - Independence Movement Day (Samiljeol; 삼일절)
- Roman Empire - Matronalia in honor of Juno
- Roman Empire - Feriae Marti in honor of Mars
- Roman Empire - New Year
- Roman Empire - The sacred fire of Rome was renewed (See Vesta)
- Saint David's Day (National Holiday of Wales)
- World Day of Prayer
- Bahá'í Faith - Last Day (4 or 5) of Ayyám-i-Há (Intercalary Days) - days in the Bahá'í calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
- Labour day - Western Australia
- Eight Hours Day - Tasmania, Australia
- Martenitsa - a seasonal holiday in Bulgaria
- Martisor - a seasonal holiday in Romania
- Iceland - This day is called the Beer Day, but this day in 1989 beer was allowed again
- Historically, March 1st was considered to be the beginning of the year. The names of some months reflect this. (September = Seventh, October = Eighth, November = Ninth, December = Tenth). (see New Year) If the days of the year were counted from March 1, till the next March 1, each date of the year would have the same number every year, unlike counting from January 1.

Seasons beginning March 1

In Denmark, spring begins on March 1, while in Australia autumn begins on March 1.

Year Beginning March 1

If one begins each year on March 1, then each date will have the same day number in this year, regardless of whether it is a leap year or not (e.g. December 25 is always day 300). Also the months follow a regular 5-month cycle of 153 days, till the end of February. This can be seen by listing the number of days in the months thus: Mar 31 Aug 31 Jan 31 Apr 30 Sep 30 Feb 28/29 May 31 Oct 31 Jun 30 Nov 30 Jul 31 Dec 31 This regularity is sometimes used in calendar calculations.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/1 BBC: On This Day] ---- February 28 - February 29 - (February 30) - March 2 - February 1 - April 1 -- listing of all days ko:3월 1일 ms:1 Mac ja:3月1日 simple:March 1 th:1 มีนาคม

September 13

September 13 is the 256th day of the year (257th in leap years). There are 109 days remaining in the year.

Events


- 509 BC - The temple of Jupiter on Rome's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides of September.
- 122 - The building of Hadrian's Wall begins.
- 533 - Belisarius and the Roman Empire defeat Gelimer and the Vandals at the Battle of Ad Decimium near Carthage, North Africa.
- 604 - Pope Sabinianus is consecrated.
- 1440 - Gilles de Rais is taken into custody upon an accusation brought against him by the Bishop of Nantes.
- 1609 - Henry Hudson reaches the river that will later be named after him - the Hudson River.
- 1743 - England, Austria and Savoy-Sardinia sign the Treaty of Worms (1743).
- 1759 - Battle of the Plains of Abraham: British defeat French near Quebec City in the Seven Years' War, known in the United States as the French and Indian War
- 1788 - The United States Constitutional Convention sets the date for the country's first presidential election, and New York City becomes the temporary capital of the U.S.
- 1791 - King Louis XVI of France accepts the new constitution
- 1813 - The British fail to capture Baltimore, Maryland. Turning point in the War of 1812.
- 1847 - Mexican-American War: Six teenage military cadets known as Niños Héroes die defending Chapultepec Castle in the Battle of Chapultepec. American General Winfield Scott captures Mexico City in the Mexican-American War.
- 1862 - Union soldiers find Robert E. Lee's battle plans in a field outside Frederick, Maryland.
- 1898 - Hannibal Williston Goodwin patents celluloid photographic film
- 1899 - Henry Bliss is the first person in the United States to be killed in an automobile accident.
- 1900 - Filipino resistance fighters defeat a larger American column in the Battle of Pulang Lupa, during the Philippine American War.
- 1906 - First airplane flight in Europe
- 1914 - During World War I, South African troops open hostilities in German SW Afica (Namibia) with an assault on the Ramansdrift police station.
- 1922 - The temperature (in the shade) at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya reaches a world record 136.4 °F (58 °C).
- 1923 - Military coup in Spain - Miguel Primo de Rivera takes over, setting up a dictatorship.
- 1939 - Canada enters World War II.
- 1940 - German bombs damage Buckingham Palace.
- 1940 - Italy invades Egypt.
- 1943 - Chiang Kai-shek elected president of the Republic of China.
- 1948 - Margaret Chase Smith is elected senator, and becomes the first woman to serve in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the United States Senate.
- 1953 - Nikita Khrushchev appointed secretary-general of the Soviet Union.
- 1956 - The dyke around the Dutch polder East Flevoland is closed.
- 1965 - Baseball: Willie Mays becomes the fifth member of the 500 home run club with a home run at the Astrodome in Houston, Texas.
- 1968 - Albania leaves the Warsaw Pact.
- 1970 - First running of the New York City Marathon.
- 1971 - State police and National Guardsmen storm New York's Attica Prison to end a prison revolt. 42 people die in the assault.
- 1971 - Frank Robinson becomes the 11th member of the 500 home run club with a home run at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Maryland.
- 1978 - Italy's Men's Soccer Team Captain Fabio Cannavaro is born in Napoli, Italy.
- 1978 - Jose Theodore, Goalie for the Montreal Canadiens NHL Franchise is born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
- 1979 - South Africa grants independence to the "homeland" of Venda (not recognized outside South Africa).
- 1985 - The Super Mario Bros. video game is released by Nintendo.
- 1987 - Goiânia accident: A radioactive object is stolen from an abandoned hospital in Goiânia, Brazil, contaminating many people in the following weeks and leading some to die from radiation poisoning.
- 1988 - Hurricane Gilbert is the strongest recorded hurricane in the Western Hemisphere (based on barometric pressure).
- 1989 - Largest anti-Apartheid march in South Africa, led by Desmond Tutu.
- 1991 - A concrete beam weighing 55 tons fell in the Olympic Stadium, Montreal, Canada.
- 1993 - Public unveiling of the Oslo Accords, an Israeli-Palestinian peace agreement initiated by Norway.
- 1993 - Norwegian parliamentary election, 1993.
- 1994 - Ulysses probe passes the Sun's south pole.
- 1996 - After surviving for six days, U.S. rapper/actor Tupac Shakur dies after being shot four times in a drive by shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada.
- 1999 - Bomb explodes in Moscow, Russia. At least 119 people are killed.
- 2001 - Civilian airplane traffic in the U.S., which had been grounded following the September 11, 2001 attacks, is allowed to resume.
- 2004 - The anime InuYasha finishes its run in Japan with episode 167.
- 2005 - The Israeli's abandon the Gaza Strip.
- 2005 - Major Japanese Pop group Do As Infinity announces their disbanding.

Births


- 1087 - John II Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1143)
- 1502 - John Leland, English antiquarian (d. 1552)
- 1520 - William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, English statesman (d. 1598)
- 1604 - William Brereton, English soldier and politician (d. 1661)
- 1739 - Grigori Potemkin, Russian statesman (d. 1791)
- 1775 - Laura Secord, Canadian heroine of the War of 1812 (d. 1868)
- 1802 - Arnold Ruge, German philosopher and political writer (d. 1880)
- 1813 - John Sedgwick, American Civil War general (d. 1864)
- 1819 - Clara Schumann, German pianist and composer (d. 1896)
- 1830 - Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Austrian writer (d. 1916)
- 1842 - John H. Bankhead, U.S. Senator (d. 1920)
- 1851 - Walter Reed, American physician and biologist (d. 1902)
- 1857 - Milton S. Hershey, American chocolate entrepreneur (d. 1945)
- 1857 - Michał Drzymała, Polish peasant rebel (d. 1937)
- 1860 - John J. Pershing, American general (d. 1948)
- 1863 - Arthur Henderson, British politician and union leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1935)
- 1873 - Constantin Carathéodory, Greek mathematician (d. 1950)
- 1874 - Arnold Schoenberg, Austrian-born composer (d. 1951)
- 1876 - Sherwood Anderson, American writer (d. 1941)
- 1877 - Wilhelm Filchner, German explorer (d. 1957)
- 1885 - Wilhelm Blaschke, Austrian geometer
- 1886 - Sir Robert Robinson, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)
- 1887 - Lavoslav Ruzicka, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)
- 1893 - Larry Shields, American musician (d. 1953)
- 1894 - J.B. Priestley, English playwright and novelist (d. 1984)
- 1894 - Julian Tuwim, Polish poet (d. 1953)
- 1895 - Morris Kirksey, American athlete and rugby player (d. 1981)
- 1903 - Claudette Colbert, French-born actress (d. 1996)
- 1911 - Bill Monroe, American singer (d. 1996)
- 1916 - Roald Dahl, Welsh writer (d. 1990)
- 1918 - Dick Haymes, Argentine vocalist (d. 1980)
- 1917 - Robert Ward, American composer (d. 1994)
- 1922 - Charles Brown, American singer and pianist (d. 1999)
- 1923 - Edouard Boubat, French photographer
- 1924 - Maurice Jarre, French composer
- 1925 - Mel Torme, American singer (d. 1999)
- 1929 - Nicolai Ghiaurov, Bulgarian opera singer (d. 2004)
- 1932 - Barbara Bain, American actress
- 1936 - Stefano Delle Chiaie, Italian neo-Nazi
- 1937 - Don Bluth, American animator
- 1938 - Judith Martin, American etiquette writer
- 1939 - Richard Kiel, American actor
- 1940 - Óscar Arias, Costa Rican politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1941 - Tadao Ando, Japanese archictect
- 1941 - David Clayton-Thomas, singer (Blood, Sweat & Tears)
- 1944 - Jacqueline Bisset, actress
- 1944 - Peter Cetera, American singer and bass guitarist (Chicago)
- 1945 - Noël Godin, Belgian humorist
- 1948 - Nell Carter, American actress and singer (d. 2003)
- 1950 - Wlodzimierz Cimoszewicz, Polish politician
- 1952 - Randy Jones, American musician (The Village People)
- 1952 - Raymond O'Connor, American actor
- 1952 - Don Was, American singer and composer
- 1961 - Dave Mustaine, American musician (Megadeth)
- 1965 - Zak Starkey, British musician
- 1966 - Maria Furtwängler, German physician and television actress
- 1967 - Michael Johnson, American athlete
- 1968 - Emma Sjöberg, Swedish model and actress
- 1969 - Shane Warne, Australian cricketer
- 1971 - Goran Ivanisevic, Croatian tennis player
- 1971 - Stella McCartney, British fashion designer
- 1973 - Christine Arron, French runner
- 1976 - Craig McMillan, New Zealand cricketer
- 1977 - Fiona Apple, American singer
- 1978 - Jose Theodore, Canadian NHL player.
- 1978 - Fabio Cannavaro, Italian Soccer Player, current Men's Team captain.
- 1979 - Ivan Miljković, Serbian volleyball player, considered as the best attacker in the world, Olympic gold medalist in 2000 (with the team of Jugoslavia)
- 1980 - Viren Rasquinha, Indian hockey player
- 1980 - Ben Savage, American actor (Boy Meets World)
- 1982 - Nenê, Brazilian basketball player
- 1983 - James Bourne, Busted, Son Of Dork

Deaths


- 81 - Roman Emperor Titus (b. 39)
- 1321 - Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (b. 1265)
- 1438 - King Duarte of Portugal (b. 1391)
- 1506 - Andrea Mantegna, Italian painter
- 1557 - John Cheke, English classical scholar and statesman (b. 1514)
- 1592 - Michel de Montaigne, French writer (b. 1533)
- 1598 - King Philip II of Spain (b. 1526)
- 1632 - Archduke Leopold V of Austria, regent of the Tyrol (b. 1586)
- 1759 - James Wolfe, British general (b. 1727)
- 1766 - Benjamin Heath, English classical scholar (b. 1704)
- 1806 - Charles James Fox, English politician (b. 1749)
- 1808 - Saverio Bettinelli, Italian writer (b. 1718)
- 1847 - Nicolas Oudinot, French marshal (b. 1767)
- 1872 - Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach, German philosopher (b. 1804)
- 1881 - Ambrose Burnside, American Civil War general and politician (b. 1824)
- 1885 - Friedrich Kiel, Austrian composer (b. 1821)
- 1894 - Emmanuel Chabrier, French composer (b. 1841)
- 1912 - Maresuke Nogi, Japanese general (b. 1849)
- 1915 - Andrew L. Harris, American Civil War hero and Governor of Ohio (b. 1835)
- 1928 - Italo Svevo, Italian author (b. 1861)
- 1949 - August Krogh, Danish zoophysiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1874)
- 1973 - Betty Field, American actress (b. 1913)
- 1977 - Leopold Stokowski, English conductor (b. 1882)
- 1987 - Mervyn LeRoy, American film director (b. 1900)
- 1996 - Tupac Shakur, American rapper and actor (b. 1971)
- 1998 - George Wallace, American politician (b. 1919)
- 1999 - Benjamin Bloom, American educational theorist (b. 1913)
- 2001 - Dorothy McGuire, American actress (b. 1916)
- 2003 - Frank O'Bannon, Governor of Indiana (b. 1930)
- 2005 - Julio César Turbay Ayala, Colombian politician (b. 1916)
- 2005 - Toni Fritsch, Austrian soccer and American football player (b. 1945)

Holidays and observances


- Roman festivals - epulum Iovis: banquet of Jupiter, on the ides during the Ludi Romani
- RC Saints - St John Chrysostom Also see September 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

Fiction


- During the 1970s science fiction TV series Space: 1999, September 13, 1999, was the day when the Moon broke away its orbit around the Earth and began its voyage across the Universe, taking the inhabitants of Moon Base Alpha with it.
- In the television series Sliders, the Mallory character invented sliding (travel between alternative realities) on September 13.
- "Second Impact", a critical event in the popular anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion, was said to have occurred on September 13, 2000.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/13 BBC: On This Day] ---- September 12 · September 14 · August 13 · October 13 · more historical anniversaries ko:9월 13일 ja:9月13日 simple:September 13 th:13 กันยายน

1810

1810 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 10 - Marriage of Napoleon and Josephine is annulled
- January 20 - Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer executed
- March 11 - Napoleon marries Marie-Louise of Austria
- April 19 - Venezuela achieves home rule: Emparan, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a Junta is installed.
- May 10 - Revolutionary occupation of Buenos Aires town hall.
- May 25 - Armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy from Spain and establish a provincial government for Argentina.
- June 8 - Birth of Robert Schumann, German composer.
- June 23 - John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company.
- July - Napoleon annexes the Kingdom of Holland.
- July 20 - Colombia declares independence from Spain.
- August 6 - City of Mompos in modern-day Colombia is declares independence from the Spanish Empire
- September 8 - The Tonquin sets sail from New York Harbor with 33 employees of John Jacob Astor's newly created Pacific Fur Company on board. After a six month journey around the tip of South America, the ship will arrive at the mouth of the Columbia River and Astor's men will establish fur-trading town of Astoria.
- September 16 - Dieciséis de septiembre, the Mexican War of Independence of the Republic of Mexico
- September 18 - Chile forms the National Junta, which is their first passage towards independency.
- September 26 - A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne.
- October 12 - First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen.
- October 27 - USA annexes West Florida from Spain
- November 10 - the Berners Street Hoax - Theodore Hook manages to attract dozens of people to 53 Berners Street in London
- King George III of the United Kingdom recognized as insane
- Amadou Lobbo initiates his jihad in present-day Mali.
- Russia acquires Sukhumi through a treaty with Abkhazian dukes, and declares a protectorate over the whole of Abkhazia.
- Macon's Bill No. 2
- First steamboat on the Ohio River

Ongoing events


- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)-Peninsular War

Births


- January 3 - Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie, Irish-French geographer (d. 1897)
- February 5 - Ole Bull, Norwegian violinist (d. 1880)
- February 22 - Frédéric Chopin, Polish composer and pianist (d. 1849)
- March 2 - Pope Leo XIII (d. 1903)
- May 23 - Margaret Fuller, American journalist and feminist (d. 1850)
- June 8 - Robert Schumann, German composer and pianist (d. 1856)
- July 21 - Henri Victor Regnault, French chemist and physicist (d. 1878)
- September 2 - William Seymour Tyler, American educator and historian (d. 1897)
- September 29 - Elizabeth Gaskell, British novelist (d. 1865)
- October 10 - James W. Marshall, American contractor and builder of Sutter's Mill (d. 1885)
- December 11 - Alfred de Musset, French poet (d. 1857)

Deaths


- January 20 - Benjamin Chew, Chief Justice of colonial Pennsylvania (b. 1722)
- February 20 - Andreas Hofer, Tyrolean national hero (executed) (b. 1767)
- February 24 - Henry Cavendish, British scientist (b. 1731)
- March 7 - Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood, British admiral (b. 1750)
- June 7 - Luigi Schiavonetti, Italian engraver (b. 1765)
- July 19 - Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen of Prussia (b. 1776)
- August 12 - Etienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (b. 1725)
- November 11 - Johann Zoffany, German-born painter (b. 1733)
- November 11 - John Laurance, American attorney, statesman, and judge (b. 1750) Category:1810 ko:1810년 ms:1810

Associate Justice

Associate Justice or Puisne (pronounced puny) Justice is the title for a member of a judicial panel who is not the Chief Justice. There are eight Associate Justices on the United States Supreme Court, ten Associate Justices on the Mexican Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, and eight Puisne Justices on the Supreme Court of Canada.

See also


- Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
- List of Puisne Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada Category:Court systems

United States Supreme Court

:"Scotus" redirects here. For the medieval theologian, see Duns Scotus ---- The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States of America. As such, the Court provides the leadership of the Judicial Branch of the Federal Government. The Court consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices, who are nominated by the President and confirmed with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Appointed to serve for life, they can only be removed by Congress through the impeachment process, although they may resign. No justice has ever been removed from office, though many have retired or resigned. The Supreme Court is the only court established by the United States Constitution; all other federal courts are created by Congress. The Court holds both original and appellate jurisdiction, but the latter is used quite a bit more often. Like other federal courts, the Supreme Court may exercise the power of judicial review, or the power to declare federal or state laws, as well as the actions of federal and state executives, unconstitutional. The decisions of the Supreme Court may not be appealed to any other body; as Justice Robert H. Jackson once famously remarked, "We are not final because we are infallible, but we are infallible only because we are final." The Supreme Court meets in Washington, D.C., in the United States Supreme Court building. The court is sometimes referred to by the acronyms SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the United States) and USSC (United States Supreme Court).

History

The History of the Supreme Court is generally told in terms of the Chief Justices who have presided over it.
- Initially, during the tenures of Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789–1801), the Court lacked a home of its own and any real prestige.
- That changed forever during the Marshall Court (1801–1835), which declared the Court to be the supreme arbiter of the Constitution (see Marbury v. Madison), and made a number of important rulings which gave shape and substance to the Constitutional balance of power between the Federal government (referred to at the time as the "general" government) and the states.
- The Taney Court (1836–1864) made a number of important rulings (for example, Sheldon v. Sill, holding that, while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, the Constitution does not so restrain it where lower courts are concerned) but is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, the case which may have helped precipitate the Civil War. In the years following the Civil War, the The Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864–1910) began to interpret the new civil war amendments to the Constitution, and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York; Adair v. United States); under the White and Taft courts (1910–1930), the substantive due process doctrine reached its first apogee (Adkins v. Children's Hospital; ), and the Court held that the 14th Amendment applied the Bill of Rights to the states (Gitlow v. New York).
- During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson courts (1930–1953), the court gained its own accommodation (see United States Supreme Court building, and radically changed its interpretation of the Constitution, in order to facilitate the New Deal (West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish).
- The Warren Court (1953–1969) made a number of alternately celebrated and controversial rulings expanding the application of the Constitution to civil liberties, leading a rennaisance in substantive due process. It held that segregation was unconstitutional (Brown v. Board of Education), that the Constitution protects a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut), that schools cannot have voluntary prayer (Engel v. Vitale) (or, a fortiori, mandatory bible readings, Abington School District v. Schempp), dramatically increased the scope of the doctrine of incorporation (Mapp v. Ohio; Miranda v. Arizona), wrote an equal protection clause into the Fifth Amendment, held that the states may not apportion a chamber of their legislatures in the manner in which the United States Senate is apportioned (Baker v. Carr; Reynolds v. Sims), and that the Constitution requires active compliance (Gideon v. Wainwright).
- The Burger Court (1969–1986) ruled that abortion was a constitutional right (Roe v. Wade), reached muddled and controversial rulings on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo), that death penalty was unconstitutional (Furman v. Georgia) and then that the death penalty was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia).
- The Rehnquist Court (1986–2005) narrowed the focus of Roe v. Wade (Planned Parenthood v. Casey) but dramatically circumscribed the ability of states to regulate abortion (Stenberg v. Carhart), and began to limit the power of Congress under the Commerce Clause (United States v. Lopez; United States v. Morrison).

Composition

Size of the court

United States v. Morrison The Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court; instead, Congress has the power to fix the number of Justices. Originally, the total number of Justices was set at six by the Judiciary Act of 1789. As the country grew geographically, the number of Justices steadily increased. The court was expanded to seven members in 1807, nine in 1837 and ten in 1863. In 1866, however, Congress wished to deny President Andrew Johnson any Supreme Court appointments, and therefore passed the Judicial Circuits Act, which provided that the next three Justices to retire would not be replaced; thus, the size of the Court would eventually reach seven by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. By the Circuit Judges Act of 1869, the number of Justices was again set at nine (the Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices), where it has remained ever since. President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court (see Court-packing Bill); his plan would have allowed the President to appoint one new, additonal, justice, for every justice who reached a pre-set age but did not retire from the bench, until the Court reached a maximum size of fifteen justices. Ostensibly, this was to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly judges, but it was widely recognized that the President's actual purpose was to add Justices who would favor his New Deal policies, which had been regularly ruled unconstitutional by the Court. The plan failed in Congress and the court changed course to accommodate the President's desires (see The switch in time that saved nine). In any case, Roosevelt's long tenure in the White House allowed him to appoint a large number of Justices.

Nomination, confirmation and tenure of Justices

Per Article II §2 of the United States Constitution, the power to appoint Justices belongs to the President of the United States, acting with the advice and consent of the Senate. As a general rule, Presidents nominate individuals that broadly share their ideological views. However, Presidents tend to exercise restraint, as nominees with views perceived as extreme may be blocked by the Senate (see List of Failed Nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States). In many cases, a Justice's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court's history. While the President may nominate anyone s/he chooses, the "advice and consent" of the Senate is required for appointment. The confirmation process often attracts considerable attention from special interest groups, many of whom lobby senators to confirm or to reject. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. Thereafter, the whole Senate considers the nomination; a simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected only twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork. In 1991, Clarence Thomas' nomination was almost derailed by allegations of sexual harassment; Thomas was eventually confirmed by a vote of 52–48. In some cases, the Senate has defeated a nominee by failing to take a final vote on them, rather than by explicit rejection. For example, the minority may filibuster a nominee, indefinitely prolonging debate and refusing to permit a vote, or the nominee may simply not be reported out of the Judiciary Committee. Furthermore, the President may withdraw a nomination, for instance if he or she feels that the nominee has little chance of being confirmed. Most recently, President George W. Bush granted a request by Harriet Miers to withdraw her 2005 nomination, citing her concerns about Senate requests for access to internal White House documents during the confirmation process. While filibuster of a Supreme Court Justice may be an option to bar their nomination, no Supreme Court nominee has ever been filibustered when their nomination would seat them on the Court. As a sitting Associate Justice of the Court, Abe Fortas's nomination to become Chief Justice was successfully filibustered in 1968. President Johnson had nominated him to be Chief Justice of the Supreme Court after Earl Warren retired from the Court. Until the 1980s, the approval process of Justices was frequently rather quick. From Truman through Nixon, Justices were typically approved in a month. From Reagan through Clinton, the duration of the approval process extended to much longer. Some speculate this is because of the increasing political role Justices play. When the Senate is in recess, the President is constitutionally authorized to make a temporary appointment without the Senate's advice and consent. A recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office not for life, but only until the end of the next Senate session (at most, approximately two years). In order to continue to serve thereafter, the nominee must be confirmed by the Senate. In the history of the Supreme Court, two Chief Justices and six Associate Justices have received recess appointments. They were all subsequently confirmed for full terms with the exception of Chief Justice John Rutledge. The Constitution provides that Justices "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior" (again, of course, unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is interpreted to mean life. However, Justices may resign, retire into senior status, or be removed by impeachment and conviction (the last has never occurred). On average, a vacancy arises every two years; however, long stretches without any vacancies occur from time to time. For instance, no vacancy arose after Stephen Breyer's appointment in 1994 until Sandra Day O'Connor's announcement of her retirement from the Court in 2005—a period of eleven years. The Supreme Court's jurisprudence is often evaluated with respect to the service of a particular Chief Justice. Thus, for example, the Court between 1969 and 1986 is referred to as the "Burger Court" (after former Chief Justice Warren E. Burger) and the Court between 1986 and 2005 is referred to as the "Rehnquist Court" (after the late Chief Justice William Rehnquist).

Qualifications for membership

The Constitution does not explicitly establish any qualifications for Justices of the Supreme Court. In fact it does not even specify citizenship or age as it does for the executive and legislative branches. However, Presidents normally nominate individuals who have prior legal experience. Typically, most nominees have judicial experience, either at the federal or state level. Several nominees have formerly served on federal Courts of Appeals, especially the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, which is often considered a stepping stone to the Supreme Court. Another source of Supreme Court nominees is the federal executive branch—in particular, the Department of Justice. Other potential nominees include members of Congress and academics. On the current Supreme Court, seven Justices previously served on federal courts (including three on the D.C. Circuit); two served on state courts; three were former law school professors; and three held full time positions in the federal executive branch. Nominees to the Supreme Court, as well as to lower federal courts, are evaluated by the American Bar Association's Standing Committee on Federal Judiciary. The panel is composed of fifteen federal judges (but not Supreme Court Justices), including at least one from each federal judicial circuit. The body assesses the nominee "solely to professional qualifications: integrity, professional competence and judicial temperament," and offers a rating of "well qualified," "qualified," or "not qualified." The opinions of the committee bind neither the President nor the Senate; however, they are generally taken into account.

Other functions

Each Justice on the Supreme Court is assigned to at least one of the United States' thirteen judicial circuits. The Chief Justice is usually allotted to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Federal Circuit and the Fourth Circuit; each Associate Justice is allotted to one or two judicial circuits. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each Justice was required to "ride circuit," or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice, however, encountered opposition from many Justices, who complained about the difficulty of travel. Moreover, several individuals opposed it on the grounds that a Justice could not be expected to be impartial in an appeal if he had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891. Now, the duty of a Supreme Court Justice in this regard is limited to hearing emergency petitions in the relevant circuit and some other routine tasks like addressing certain requests for extensions of time.

Current membership

The current Justices of the United States Supreme Court, in order of seniority, are: During Court sessions, the Justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right: Ginsburg, Souter, Scalia, Stevens, Roberts, O'Connor, Kennedy, Thomas and Breyer (who has been the junior justice for 11 years, the third longest period in history between appointments of an Associate Justice). Justices Scalia and Thomas, the court's two Originalists are generally perceived as the Court's